#77 = Volume 26, Part 1 = March 1999
Christopher Palmer
Galactic Empires and the Contemporary Extravaganza:
Dan Simmons and Iain M. Banks
Galactic-empire fiction has always
been an important branch of space opera: action-packed, adolescent, cheerfully
anachronistic, deriving its world structure very loosely from information and
myth about caste-ridden, sensual, and violent empires in their decadent phases.
Yet it offers rich possibilities for expression of the vast, the sublime, and
the exotically multicultural or multi-specific. The purpose of this essay is to
examine how two expert and inventive contemporary writers of galactic-empire sf
have taken up these opportunities and produced fiction that reflects, and
reflects on, our contemporary situation—what is now conventionally labeled the
postmodern condition.
Galactic-empire sf is usually set very far away from
here, and very far away from now. In fact, the temporal distance from our own
time is so great that its direction doesn't really matter. The events of Iain M.
Banks's Consider Phlebas take place circa 1335 AD, as we are told very
late in the novel (‘‘Appendices—the Idiran-Culture War’’ 459), but
they also take place in the far future, as far as scientific and even social
development is concerned. That is, to date them in relation to our time is
pointless. There would certainly be no point in extrapolating back from our
present to a vastly distant past which, as is often the case in this fiction,
somehow combines hyper-modern technology with pre-modern social forms. As we
shall see, relations between recent galactic-empire sf and contemporary society
are more complex than this remark implies, but, for the moment, the contrast
between the generality of galactic-empire sf and cyberpunk, the dominant sf of
recent times, is a clear one. Cyberpunk sf is an urban, near-future, earthbound,
noir fiction involving hip loners; galactic-empire sf takes in vast reaches of
space and time and its style tends to be epic. In cyberpunk sf, technology
most strikingly affects and alters the body, whereas in galactic-empire fiction,
as in much other sf, it is the ability of technology to encompass and alter
reaches of space and time that is most often imagined. It is true, however, that
recent galactic-empire sf bears the marks of cyberpunk; indeed the former can be
read as one inventive and alert response of ‘‘traditional sf’’—meaning
by this, the kind of sf that deals with spaceships and planets—to cyberpunk
and its bumptious reinvigoration of the genre. Simmons’s and Banks’s images
of vast inner and outer spaces will be discussed below: both draw on Gibson’s
cyberspace.
Recent discussion of, especially, cyberpunk sf, has focused on
its imbrication in the particular historical condition it is imagining: indeed,
postmodern social life, or theorizing about it, is said to be science fictional,
and cyberpunk sf is commonly the kind of sf that most figures in these
discussions.1 How might a very different kind of sf relate to the
postmodern, if at all? This essay characterizes some of galactic-empire fiction’s
most striking and enjoyable features in the endeavor to open discussion on the
issue. Its theoretical approach is Jamesonian, in that it hypothesizes that the
political unconscious of a historical moment will find expression in recurring
structures and tropes. But this approach is tacit rather than topic, to borrow
Oakeshott’s distinction, which usefully reflects the fact that some things
have to be assumed ("tacit") while others are pursued
("topic"). The theory is no more than a means to organizing a
characterization of this fiction in the light of postmodernity,
Generalizations about postmodernity and postmodernism often
posit some discontinuity, or even (to be more dramatic) rupture, between the
modern and the postmodern. But these generalizations may be interestingly skewed
in the case of sf, because it experienced only a very late modernism, and yet
has been intensely involved with modernity, in its technophilia and its
utopianism. Further, the bias of postmodernism is against neat, clear-cut
contrasts; a rupture—if there has been a rupture between the modern and the
postmodern—is not a clean break, and doesn’t open a gap. The ragged edges
and overlaps may turn out to be surprising, when closely defined.
Again, it seems a worthwhile experiment to hypothesize that
contemporary sf will give us the postmodern, if at all, with a difference.
Contemporary sf, which has its own genre history and rules and its own cultural
location (let’s bracket that notion that sf is everywhere these days) may
deliver a skewed reflection back to postmodernism. Simmons’s and Banks’s
galactic-empire novels form a group, varied but overlapping, and it will be
argued that they share the following characteristics: ambitious, multifarious
inclusiveness; uninhibited hedonism; complicated relations with textuality and
intertextuality; a complicated depiction of space as non-coherent, subject to no
uniform rules; decentered subjects, but, on the other hand, a return of depth.
Many of these characteristics resemble those which commentators such as Fredric
Jameson (1991) and Jean Baudrillard (1983) have nominated as typical of the
postmodern condition, though some, such as the return of psychic depth, do not
fit, or not at first glance. It is likely that as sf is in important ways
realist in its procedures, it will give us the postmodern in its content
and themes, rather than in its forms (de Zwaan, 1997). It will throw light on
the postmodern cultural condition, but not offer the dissolution of character
and narrative that is the concern and often the ideal of postmodernist theory.
The distinction between content and form is not, however, always easy to draw;
Banks and Simmons sometimes blur it by the sheer excess with which they create
scenes, narratives, characters, and imaginary spaces, though it is not here
claimed that the result is postmodernist fiction.
To elaborate the characteristics of Banks’s and Simmons’s
galactic-empire fiction which will be discussed in this essay: we have
inclusiveness, which launches these novels in a procedure of critique by
overload rather than by irony. We have hedonism, virtually unaccompanied by the
utopian impulse, riven and twisted with sado-masochism. We have complicated
relations with textuality and intertextuality—a topic which may be opened in a
preliminary way by positing a space in which the textualist and the cornucopian
happily coexist (this is the space in which Gravity’s Rainbow and Foucault’s
Pendulum—not to mention Ulysses—already confabulate, like some
exotic, overcrowded intergalactic barroom). We have decentered subjects,
self-unknowing, overlapping, pastiched, or simply crowded in multitudes, but, on
the other hand, a violent sense of the dark reaches of the personality. It seems
plausible that this fiction is the result of the operations of a postmodern
imaginary on the materials of traditional galactic-empire sf; this imaginary
operates mainly by excess, overload, and exacerbation. If the sketch offered in
the rest of this essay is valid, then it is by pushing the earlier, adventurous,
and exuberant fiction to the limits, piling invention on invention, juxtaposing
spaces that are hard to relate, that this more recent galactic-empire fiction
expresses the postmodern condition. What is the significance of the version of
the post-modern that results? It can be suggested that there is an anxiety, an
intense unease, in this excess, overload, and exacerbation. For all its
richness, this fiction seems a long way from any sense of the postmodern as
liberatory.
Inclusiveness and the Extravagant Multiverse.
The immense void of space is a temptation to the Western imagination: it seems
to ask to be traversed, filled, settled, populated, ordered—and not only
spatially but also temporally. Hence, perhaps, the popularity of sf about
galactic empires, their gargantuan conflicts, heroes backlit to colossal
dimensions by the stars or by starships exploding, in the casual disasters of
those gargantuan conflicts, intrigues, and cruelties which are given grandeur by
their scale, if nothing else. And if these empires are set in a future that is
far from now, the consequence is that, being much older than us, they can be
seen as archaic, based on exotic fantasies of hierarchy and power dimly related
to Rome or Byzantium. In this way time as well as space is fantastically filled.
Recent renditions of the galactic-empire novel have included
Dan Simmons’s HYPERION novels and
Iain M. Banks’s sf.2 These novels do exhibit the horror vacui
to which I alluded above: space is full of planets, worlds, spaceships on the
scale of worlds, empires. And all these are filled with societies and secret
societies or sects, customs or perversions, classes or species, histories or
games or histories as games, and conspiracies and apocalypses (revelations and
total disasters).
The dynamic is proliferation and inclusion, though—as will
be seen when the complications of spatiality in these novels are more closely
examined—there is also an undertow of fragmentation and confusion. Previous sf
is shamelessly pillaged and knowingly outdone, even if it might seem
antagonistic (for instance, Simmons includes, outdoes, and affects contempt for
Gibson’s cyberspace3). Humanity is imagined to be able to do
anything, though humans have no agency, and when individual characters are set
before us, it is their lack of agency that is most poignant.4 Humans
have the option of pleasure and exertion—self-expression, a range of
activities, adventures, and excitements—but not of political choice.
They are vessels of experience, like travelers with no home to return to. They
exist to have their experiences so that we can read about them: this isthe inescapable fate of characters in fiction, it might be pointed out, but
this fate is given a particular edge in this context, where the characters are
so often adventurous, enviably adept, and powerful in various clear-cut ways.
Another way of framing this comment is to say that the characters live in the
aesthetic rather than the political or the technological. They don’t choose or
work; they experience, enjoy, suffer. These novels may reflect the late
twentieth-century relations of politics and culture to the degree that, for
instance, politics in the late twentieth century is presented as an
entertainment and thereby aestheticized.5 Characters may lack agency,
events may not be assimilable to that meaningful social movement through time
that used to be called History, but both characters and events certainly have
style.
These conditions can be interpreted as disseminations and
exaggerations of the conditions of life in the rich nations in the late
twentieth century, in which there are, so to speak, opportunities but not
choices: one can play, purchase, enjoy, and indulge but not make a
difference (or so the fear is). Pleasure and adventure are futile, as well as
exciting and inescapable. (Conditions for the individual, decentered yet endowed
with depth, will be further discussed below.6)
In the HYPERION
books, Simmons imagines a teleportation device called a Portal; step through one
of these, matter transference to virtually any distance takes place, and you
find yourself where you want to be. The dwellings of the rich consist of rooms
connected by these portals, so that each room can be on a different planet, with
its own agreeable climate and conditions. It’s a caricature of the lifestyle
of those who move between Manhattan, Aspen, and Cannes (or wherever). The
sublimity of teleportation meets the banality of golden bathroom fittings—and
the effect is characteristic of Simmons. There appear to be not merely one but
half a dozen means of FTL transport of messages or bodies, in almost
instantaneous "real time": Hawking Drive, fatlining, farcasting, use
of the "Core," use of a drug called "Flashback," and so on.
The utilization of a magic carpet, though only for subsonic travel, makes a
jokey allusion to this excess (Hyperion,§5:379,§6:448).
Simmons’s literary allusiveness is similar: the effect is
one of overload. For instance, several of the names of characters in the HYPERION
novels are drawn from names associated with Keats: Moneta, Joseph Severn (Keats’s
friend and deathbed companion), Brawne Lamia (a hybrid of the poet’s beloved
and a personage from one of his poems). There are quotations, casual references,
passages of pastiched romantic poetry. The novels’ details connect with a
definable literary culture as well as with the common constituents of sf, to an
effect of richness, even overload, along with some elements of jarring pastiche.
But there is not a lot to be gained from tracing detailed parallels between
Simmons’s narrative and the Keats story (Hyperion, §5:402 makesa sketchy attempt at a link, justified in sf terms). How could a character
possibly combine Fanny Brawne and Keats’s Lamia, for instance? Simmons’s
Brawne Lamia is in fact a private detective, appropriately feisty and cynical;
the subtitle of her story, "The Detective’s Story," alludes
to Chandler’s The Long Goodbye. Brawne’s father was Senator
Byron Lamia (The Fall of Hyperion, §18:181); Hyperion reenacts
the killing of Mercutio (§6:464) and links the final moment in which the
pilgrims advance to meet the Shrike with The Wizard of Oz (Epilogue 501).
But the Shrike is later connected both with Grendel and with Peter Pan (The
Fall of Hyperion, 8/81, 26/251). The allusiveness is a matter not of pattern
but of proliferation.
The violence that is a feature of both series has a similar
quality. When we are dealing with the obliteration of whole planets, it is
sometimes hard to say whether what is being exceeded is the possibility of the
nuclear destruction of our planet, or the episodes of megaviolence to be found
in recent films. Whatever the target, the effect is excess.
These galactic-empire novels involve future cultures that
possess the means to play with the creation of worlds, and they posit universes
that seem totally shaped by human imagination, even whim, as if the imploded
worlds of the cyberpunks had exploded outward again. Banks and Simmons speculate
that humanity (the humanoid, that is) has attained that sort of scope:
comprehensive, long-harbored schemes are brought to fruition, though these are
never the schemes of agents whom we actually see; weird creatures and climates
are freely scattered; literal worlds (planets, vast spaceships) proliferate—and
are spectacularly and easily destroyed. So it is with Banks’s creation, the
"Culture," an immense, enlightened, hedonistic, sex-changing,
tolerant, game-playing Civilization.7 (The social conditions of sf by
Banks that is not set in the Culture share many of these characteristics.)
So it is with Simmons’s "Hegemony," something the
novel at one point calls a multiverse, as if the word universe is no longer
adequate for its scale and complexity. (The Hegemony consists of a federation of
planets, most of which have some specific characteristic based on the histories
and societies of our earth. For instance, there is a Roman Catholic planet, and
one based on the medieval order of the Knights Templar, crossed with ecological
values.) The HYPERION novels do not
suggest that there are no worlds left for humans to conquer or make over (the
true state of affairs is quite contrary, as we discover), merely that the extent
of the humanized cosmos is now so great that it might as well be equal to that
of the universe itself. Groping outwards for the odd additional inhabitable
planet would be like Cortez trying to get hold of the Mosquito Coast when he
already had the wealth of Mexico. Somewhere tucked away in this richness is
"Old Earth" itself, which is supposed to have been destroyed (as is
not uncommon in far-future novels), but actually has been hidden.
This fiction can usefully be seen as an allegory of
multiculturalism, the dream of shape-changing cultural hybridity, but also as a
response to the decadent consumerism of the 1980s. People in these novels have
come to accept, indeed to promulgate, diversity. This achievement of
multicultural urbanity (the universe as sophisticated fantastic city with
palaces, gardens, pleasure domes, and bazaars) has evidently resulted not from
struggle, education or censoring correctness, but from material abundance and
opportunity. Work has been delegated to technology and then concealed; no one,
except robots, AI entities, and drones is working at work, or working at science
and technology: people are living off science and technology as the rich live
off their parents’ money. A certain kind of "work" is, however,
loaded onto the particular characters who have to carry the burden of the
narrative and who suffer isolation, disillusionment, and a feeling of betrayal
in consequence. These characters certainly do a lot, and in some cases, notably Hyperion
and Consider Phlebas, their actions are clogged or repeatedly
thwarted; but they don’t achieve much. (In Use of Weapons it is
revealed that the main character, who had seemed so arrogantly adept, is grimly
characterized by the title: he is a weapon being used. Here the subgenre
explicitly links the character’s lack of agency with exploitation.)
Though the societies depicted are somewhat jaded and decadent,
everything seems new and exotic to the reader. Though the locals can get
anywhere just by stepping through a portal, the reader’s experience of the
text is the experience of a tour and a panorama. This aspect was earlier defined
as the shared space of the cornucopian and the intertextual. It is also the gap
between the jaded denizens of the empire, confronting end time, and the naive
readers, entertained by a seemingly endless series of authorial inventions or
revivals.
As was hinted above, however, these imagined worlds are by no
means the scenes simply of pleasure and free scope; the relations between play
and anxiety in these novels can be further defined by considering their
violence. In an adventure novel, violence can offer spectacle and bring about
dazzling transformations. So it is in Banks and Simmons, but with a shift into
pain, even torture.
Violence, Pain, and Repetition.
Technology, the luxury it brings, and the powers it seems to bestow on humans
have become meaningless; violence and destruction restore meaning to it, but by
way of waste, what Bataille has defined as expenditure. At least, this is so in
Banks, though, as regards his sf after Consider Phlebas, the violence of
Banks’s sf needs to be seen in the light of his depiction of the unconscious,
as becomes clear with Use of Weapons and Against
a Dark Background.
Banks’s sf novels sometimes read like inventive attempts to
outdo recent action films. Simmons refers to and outdoes a range of sf, but the
point of reference and emulation for Banks is films, or even videos and video
games. This comment points to the degree to which these novels ask to be read in
the light of other texts, and also catches something of the excessiveness and
enjoyableness of the spectacular passages. They are set pieces; they call
atten-tion to the writer’s art, and they have the quality of tableaux or
displays, as with scenes of violence in many contemporary films.
These aspects of Banks’s sf also, however, suggest the links
between technology, destruction, waste, and expenditure. It appears that to
reveal the marvelous complexity of technology—its
size, its complexity of an almost astronomical kind, as of millions of
subsystems interacting with millions of other subsystems—is to destroy it. In
Banks’s sf it only reveals itself when it is being destroyed. Nor is there
much in the way of side effect or environmental degradation. Destruction usually
leaves a picturesque mess or haunting desolation. This lack of consequences
perhaps reflects the aesthetic of the spectacular.
When technology operates "normally" its workings are
hidden, effortless, and as if magical—an exaggeration of the everyday
experience of technology, but, in this context of vast powers, a telling one.
Further, Banks has imagined a future society of almost utopian technological
reach, but one which has assigned labor (physical or mental) to unseen
"Minds" and drones. He has no disposition to imagine the work of the
expert, or technician, or scientist as a way of revealing technology. What he
gives us in Consider Phlebas is a series of cinematic slow-motion
combats, collisions, and detailed bust-ups. A good example is the violent flight
of the main character Horza’s ship (the Clear Air Turbulence) through
and out of a vast General Systems Vehicle, the Ends of Invention. The Clear
Air Turbulence was docked within the Ends of Invention while the
Culture organized the evacuation of an entire artificial planet, Vavatch
Orbital, before destroying it. This destruction is a minor episode in the war
with the Idirans that provides the context for the novel, and its main purpose
is to demonstrate to the Idirans, who consider themselves very tough, that the
Culture is willing to sacrifice its own biggest and most costly creations.
Horza is actually flying the Clear Air Turbulence within the
huge, miles-long holds and corridors of the Ends of Invention, blasting
with plasma from its propulsion systems at the rear and with laser cannons at
the front to clear his way. It’s exciting, it’s orchestrated with lots of
on-the-run technical description, it makes Bruce Willis or Mel Gibson look
pretty feeble when all they destroy, in their boyish recklessness, is a few
dozen cars and some plate glass windows. But this scene is outdone by the unseen
forces of the Culture (against whom Horza is a kind of renegade) when they
systematically annihilate the whole vast Vavatch Orbital, the scene of Horza’s
violence (§8:244-248, 254-257). (The Orbital is large enough to contain, for
instance, seas big enough to float ships miles long and icebergs big enough to
sink one of those ships.8)
It is in Banks’s later sf that we are asked to look through
the spectacle of violence to the psychic depths of his main characters, but the
relation of violence to sexuality in Consider Phlebas is worth comment.
The novel offers a cocktail (with appropriately witty names)
of destruction, decadence, nihilism, sadism, playfulness and irresponsibility,
verve and juvenility. The sense is that, no matter how hard you try (as the sect
of Eaters tries in one episode of gross physicality, involving mountainous fat,
metal teeth, and poisonous saliva, and as the main character Horza tries when he
stalks and kills Kraiklyn, the previous leader of the band of adventurers at the
center of the story), no bodily, sexual, or sensual violence will equal that
involved in the damage wrought by machine upon machine, and that this is the way
forward (so to speak) for any impulse of violence or even mischief. But the more
you wreck machines, machine environments, machine worlds (vast spaceships), the
more you need them to wreck. Sexual pleasure, whether straight, or twisted in
any way you can think, is eventually forgotten and as it were sidelined. The
fate of Horza’s affair with Yalson, a fellow member of the story’s band of
adventurers, is witness to this, even though it is eventually disclosed that she
has become pregnant, an unusual event in adventure novels (§11:362). Yalson is
killed in one of the novel’s final firefights, but the narrative hasn’t time
for more than a glance, as it is occupied with the orchestration of the
collision of two trains, one of them driven by a grotesquely wounded, dying
Idiran (§13:426). It is interesting to note, however, that the final episode of
Consider Phlebas, which culminates in this spectacular rending of metal,
concerns the hunt for a fugitive "Mind," a kind of super-AI which the
Culture, the Idirans, and Horza and his company are seeking in a cavernous
underground railway system on a planet called Schar’s World. The Mind is at
once abstract (because able to pass through dimensions of space, and because in
it matter and information are almost infinitely compressible) and a small,
vulnerable object ("Interlude in Darkness" 177-9). The effect is
tantalizing: the technological, become electronic, eludes the spectacular
scenarios of destruction.
One of the many deaths depicted in Consider Phlebas focuses
the anxieties behind the novel’s sublime vastness and wastefulness. This is
the death of Leniproba. Leniproba is young and loutish, though what he is
remains unclear ("Leniproba had very long and skinny arms, and spent about
a quarter of each day going about on all fours, though whether this was entirely
natural to his species or merely affectation Horza could not discover"
[§4:67]). When the company alights on a vast, deserted, but still moving
megaship to see what can be scavenged, Leniproba simply leaps over one of the
railings (forgetting that his anti-gravity suit is inoperative in this
atmosphere) and falls to his death on one of the many decks far below (§5:115).
It’s a moment of pure, vertiginous dismay, even for the other, hardened
members of the company. The sublime effect (humans are tiny, technology is vast)
is casually rendered. Humans are nothing: the nihilism of the main character and
most of his companions is understandable. Further, the fall of Leniproba,
unsettling as it is, is, if not repeated, at least alluded to in later incidents
(the fall of the wounded medjel— medjels are aliens allied with the Idirans—in
the tunnel on Schar’s world, and then the drop of Horza and his prisoner,
Balveda, down the same shaft, [§10:320-3]). It is hard for any single action,
no matter how violent, to make an impression on this fatal repetition.
In Simmons, again, whole planets are destroyed in the invasion
that climaxes The Fall of Hyperion (§38:449-55: destruction of the
Templar planet, God’s Grove). And there is also much incidental violence,
often linked with sex (for instance, the copulation of Kassad and Moneta on the
simulated but graphically brutal battlefield of Agincourt; this is an incident
in what is supposed to be Kassad’s military training in earlier life; [Hyperion,
§2:131-135]). Further, there is a pattern of repeated violence joined with
a retarded, languorous slowness in the narrative. The HYPERION books are haunted by a time-traveling demigod/machine
called the Shrike, and also by "The Lord of Pain"[ Hyperion,
§4:293]) which impales and tortures those who perversely seek it out, and which
is an important node and object of the plot. The Shrike is at once static (as a
gigantic torture tree it is in the temporal dimension of Hell, a temporality of
unchanging pain [The Fall of Hyperion, §32:310-15]): able elusively to
flicker in and out of "real" time, it can kill thousands of high-tech
warriors at its leisure.9 Meanwhile, the human characters move slowly
in a heavy allegory of the movement of human life towards death, towards the
Shrike and the Time Tombs. They are always burdened by their grim, barely
comprehended pasts, which are retrospectively narrated for us in complexly
stranded ways—the Journey towards the Time Tombs is punctuated by the life
stories of each of the travelers ("The Soldier’s Tale," "The
Scholar’s Tale," and so on).
In Banks, the main character usually makes his or her way
through scenes of merciless violence which have the wide scope of high-tech
warfare but the viciousness of low-tech combat, and is at least adept at, if not
seriously devoted to, competition and conflict. After Consider Phlebas, as
will be discussed below, every scene of violence has the quality of a repetition
of some primal scene, also violent. The main characters are endlessly enacting
what they once witnessed, and this suggests the sado-masochistic nexus which the
presences of the Shrike thematize in the HYPERION books.
The Core and the Crypt: Space Relativized. The
plot of the HYPERION novels has two determinants whose linkage is uncertain (Hyperion,
§5:417, §6:484): the betrayal of humans by the cyber-denizens of the Core, a
space whose vastness humans have hardly comprehended; and a future holocaust
that will have filled vast underground labyrinths with human corpses, but that
may be averted by the characters’ mission to the Time Tombs to meet the
Shrike, unlikely focus of hope though it be. (The Time Tombs are places where
regular temporality is nullified by "anti-entropic tides.") In both
cases a vast spatio-temporal realm opens up; its presence threatens to rob human
lives of their validity (although humans are present in such teeming diversity),
and it stands as an unconscious that must be recognized.
HYPERION’s Core, which is explicitly
equivalent to Gibson’s cyberspace, has evolved, passing from being an
electronic space like a city to being an organic environment. That the right
image for the Core is organic, not urban, is made very clear. To comprehend the
Core’s vastness and autonomy, one must stop thinking of it as like a city,
which is a human construction (The Fall of Hyperion, §33:333). The
result is a swerve back into nature, a retraction or writing over of what
cyberspace meant for Gibson and most of his successors (Cadigan or Stephenson,
for instance). Here deity-like AIs live an independent existence, of a
sophistication that dwarfs the supposedly sophisticated humans of the novel’s
future.
Here in Simmons, as in Banks’s Feersum Endjinn, the
process can be seen as an extrapolation of the nature of the computer. Both
Simmons and Banks find a figure for the impression that a computer—or the
cyberspace it connects to—contains so much in terms of time (operations per
second), and such a multitude of bits of information, that it "ought
to" contain a vast space. In these novels, it is figured as doing this, but
challenging the "normal" space that humans, mostly passive in the face
of technology, still inhabit. Cyberspace ceases to be a stable part of the realm
of technology, conceived as human invention and servant. This follows from the
fact that it has become another Nature. And indeed there is nothing so unusual
about the sinister outcome of this development—it almost seems that
technology, and in particular cyberspace, can hardly be narrativized without the
narrative’s turning to this possibility of revolt or menace. But in Simmons
and Banks, who are impelled to exceed earlier sf, cyberspace becomes an
underworld, an other world.
It’s not the quality or subtlety of this return of a
repressed nature that is impressive, but its sheer imaginative scale. There is a
return of repressed labor, as well. The Core works for humans, calculating,
informing, acting as memory; humans play, as if there were no necessity for
labor anywhere. But it is revealed that humans have in fact been working for the
Core, because their brains have been utilized as if they were circuits in a
computer. And as was noted earlier, the menace of the Core, a vast realm
inhabited by huge godlike entities, is joined to the shadow of a future
holocaust, legions of already/not yet dead. Victory for one party in a vast
conflict among denizens of the Core will have resulted in these labyrinths of
corpses (for instance, The Fall of Hyperion, §34/369-71).
Further, the novel tells its story of future annihilation in terms of the Shrike
and of a savior-to-be, daughter of Brawne Lamia and the cybrid Joseph Severn,
who will return as Aenea in Endymion—at least, so far, it can begin
that story, working with this ambivalent convergence between the monster and the
woman—but the event that prompts their convergence can only be imaged and is
never temporally present.
The "outside" world of cities, spaceships, and
planets that humans inhabit and apparently control wavers; it is split, and the
rationality of its dimensions is in doubt. Space already admits time tombs, is
traversed by jumps which involve death and resurrection (a feature added in Endymion),
or slippages opened up by portals connecting different planets. In fact, the
way it is constituted already suggests a certain instability, as if it is
simultaneously rigid and easily traversible. The various planetary societies in
the world of the HYPERION books are simulacra of societies and cultures from a
now-lost Earth. History is spatialized, frozen. It is as if the galaxy were made
up of theme parks10—Templarland (called God’s Grove s),
Vaticanland (Pacem), Natureland (Maui-Covenant), and so on. And then this clear—if
rather artificial—structure is disrupted. There is a loss of coherence, a
sense that no one projection, in the map-maker’s sense, will serve for the
different spaces of this world. The Fall of Hyperion, lists a dazzling
variety of alternative holosphere projections: "oblique equirectangular,
Bonne, orthographic, rosette, Van der Grinten," etc. (§4:41). As if in
reaction against this loss of coherence, the material, traversible qualities of
space, which should imply place-to-place linearity, are asserted in the
narrative. People journey through it—that is, through the upper, material
world, planets, deserts, mountains, rivers, cities, castles—with effort,
submitting to the age-old rhythms of the wagon train, the voyage, the
expedition. They explore, they rediscover (relics, ruins which plangently speak
the lost and desolate), they wander, get lost, become separated, and meet up. In
the earlier phases of the story, there is already a tension between this
traditional journeying and the technologically advanced forms of transport and
communication that are also available. In the later phases of the story, the
latter, especially the Portals, have broken down because the Core which
maintained them has turned on its human masters. Again, the campfire
story-telling by which the travelers’ past lives are told in Hyperion issurely the narrative analog of this journeying, and is to be contrasted with
the time distortions and complex double crosses that underpin the later phases
of the plot. Does this mean that the HYPERION novels arrive at a fully
postmodernist dissolution of stable sequence? Probably not, but it is probably a
mistake to assert that there is necessarily a strict difference between the
stable and the deconstructed.
The comparable case in Banks is Feersum Endjinn, where
cyberspace is called "the Crypt." The world of Feersum Endjinn isdivided into two constructions, the Crypt and the Fastness, a vast
castellation called Serehfa whose battlements, merlons, mountainous towers,
endless rooms, corridors, drains, lifts, and lightwells are the wonderfully
evoked scene of most of the action. This fastness is not a building or a city so
much as a landscape, a country: armies can fight over it from room to room,
individuals can journey in it, forget its plan. Serehfa is like a deliberate
exceeding of Mervyn Peake’s Gormenghast, its clearest ancestor. In one sense,
there is no earth, only the Fastness; in another, the Fastness has lost all
sense of being a city, and has become a landscape. Beneath it, sign and source
of a technological power which the humans of the novel take for granted and no
longer understand, is the Crypt.
The Crypt is autonomous, like the Core in the HYPERION books.
It is a data stream, a place constituted by information just as is Gibson’s
cyberspace. It has mutated; it is the scene of chaos, or what humans call chaos;
and like Gibson’s and Simmons’s cyberspaces, it has bred deities, or
creatures of the spirit. It is experienced as a vast wild realm filled with
monsters and travelers. It is also the limbo and abiding place of replicas of
the self which live out their existences there, but can also be called upon to
do duty as personalities in the world above—that is how each person in the
world of Feersum Endjinn can have nine lives. In addition, Feersum
Endjinn is one of those novels, like Banks’s The Bridge, where vast
constructions fill the world and it is hard not to read the constructions, with
their multiple depths, as allegories of the psyche. There is an extraordinary
overlapping of natural metaphor supplied by the reader (underworld as
unconscious), technological literalization supplied by the imagined society of
the novel (data stream manifest as oases, etc.), and narratological
complication, also supplied by the imagined society of the novel (personality
constructs as alternative selves able to interact with the "real" self
in certain circumstances).
Technology, disdained in the archaic, stalled society of the
Fastness (which uses high-tech but never develops it), is the basis of the
counterlife in the Crypt, with its alternate spaces, times, and ways of being a
self (the parallel personality constructs). But technology is also invisible in
the Crypt. It is a world of archetypal deserts, oases, caravanserai, cellars,
and monsters, that is underlain by data. As skyscrapers and other icons of the
modern city represent data in Gibson’s cyberspace, so this archaic landscape
represents data in Feersum Endjinn. But this place is affected by some
mutation which has released these alternative potentials, building on the
different time conditions of the Crypt (in turn literalizing the way computers
can do millions of computations in a second).
It is, then, the Crypt itself, the world below, that contains
deserts, gardens, and caravanserai, while the world above, the Fastness, is in
its gloomy alienness less an alternative to the Crypt than a counterpart. Feersum
Endjinn is not apocalyptic, though the earth is facing obliteration
in the time of the novel (an astronomical event called the Encroachment); the
fact that much of the novel is narrated by the adolescent Bascule in his own
demotic, similar to that of Riddley Walker in Russell Hoban’s novel, indeed
gives Feersum Endjinn—"Fearsome Engine"—a wonderful
lightness and airiness. Nonetheless, as in the HYPERION books, the sense of
space has been twisted off its conventional axis. This is an effect of the
inventive richness of these novels: scenes, spaces, worlds in the sense of
places that seem to work by their own rules, are piled together, and the
relation is one of overlay, not coherence. If the effect has cultural
significance, it is presumably to be related to the postmodern intensification
of clashing spatial experiences: the space of the e-mailer versus that of the
commuter versus that of the pedestrian.
Elsewhere in Banks’s sf, however, space is traversed with
masterful technology, even if by travelers and adventurers otherwise by no means
in control of their destinies, and who, indeed, tend to be moving through
landscapes expressive of their own psyches—of how little they know or can
recognize their own inner histories.
A Return of Depth. What has
so far been sketched conforms to common descriptions of the postmodern, in its
instability, its refusal of stable relations—above and below, central and
peripheral. It might be objected that any interesting narrative has to be
unstable. The whole point of Othello, for instance, in this context, is
that Iago takes over Othello’s narrative; or maybe that we can no longer say
who is peripheral, the subordinate Iago or the black outsider Othello. If
hierarchies (social or narratological) remain stable, there isn’t much of a
story. Nonetheless, the dimensions of the disorder—not the subtlety or
painfulness of the disorder, but its sheer restless complication—are striking
in the case of this galactic-empire fiction. And the case becomes more arresting
if we consider the instability which overtakes the psychic in Iain M. Banks’s
sf. It is commonly argued that the notion of inner-ness or depth is irrelevant
to consideration of the condition of postmodernity, but Banks’s sf brings
about a return of psychic depth, although many of its other features are
characteristically postmodern. The matter is, however, a complex one.
In several of these novels, the Culture, whose hedonism,
tolerance, and scope were sketched above, has a dark shadow in this or that
empire, violent, masculinist and competitive—in fact more like our
civilization than the Culture is. Into this latter the main character moves from
the Culture, and commonly the main character is an arrogant, anti-social, adept
loner. In Consider Phlebas it is a member of a species
called Changers whose unusual mimetic capacities were first developed for
military purposes; in The Player of Games, a ruthless game player; in Use
of Weapons, a kind of mercenary.
In The Player of Games an apparently reassuring and
confident narrative progression is achieved by the hero. He advances
victoriously through the levels of the game in the aggressive empire in which he
is an alien, which lives by that game as if the whole civilization had been
planned by malign disciples of J.H. Huizinga or Clifford Geertz. He is literally
beating the Azadians at their own game. But it becomes clear that his advance is
in destruction, and his final victory will be the obliteration of the empire
itself, brought about by the defeated emperor—but in another sense brought
about by the Culture, which has despatched Jernau Gurgeh as an agent to that
very purpose, which was concealed from him. Progression is destruction, movement
into the unknown is actually fulfillment of a plan that was already elaborated,
though not disclosed to the main character (§3:382-4). All the violently
contending parties share the same end: loner and collective, Culture and Empire,
machiavellian plan and insensate instinct and cool skill are all one. (The
violent plot of Consider Phlebas is also circular, though in a
sketchier fashion. The dying Horza mutters the words—about death—which came
into his head when he faced apparently certain death in the first episode of the
novel;[§1:9-14; §13:40-1].) But all this might best be seen as a parody of the
action novel or movie, which very commonly has a paranoid element—or at least
as an exacerbation to extremes of the action novel, as was suggested above of
the spectacular violence of Consider Phlebas.
Use of Weapons is more complex in
its structure. This novel interweaves two narratives which are formally distinct—one
from chapters 1 to 14 and one from chapters XII to I, the first telling a story
in the novel’s unfolding present, the second telling the main character’s
autobiography backwards in time. The two narratives converge, meeting at the
point in the first where the protagonist discovers the meaning of the second
narrative: who he is. This latter narrative involves his bitter conflict with a
dark counterpart, an evil cousin, sadistic and incestuous, and culminates in his
and our discovery that he is himself that dark brother. He repressed it, we didn’t
know it, and we read the whole of both narratives with the wrong assumptions,
while he lived his violent and dangerous life under a fundamental, repressed
error as to his own identity. This frightening transposability of the two
characters almost literally turns the novel inside out, making a point about the
subject’s effective foundation on a split. But the point is based on a premise
of psychic depth.
It might be objected that this return of depth can only take
the form of a certain (postmodern) superficiality.11 Everything is
literalized, realized, raised to the surface. The dark identity of Cheradenine
Zakalwe in Use of Weapons is always there, spotlit as it were, in
the form of a set of repeated situations and images: a brother-sister
relationship, entrapment in a small room in a fortress or similar place, a chair
made out of human bones. There’s some sort of odd, "wrong" chair in
virtually every one of the colorfully diverse locations of the narrative,12
and though its true meaning is not revealed until the end of the story, it was
never a chair with a manifest content—its latency was written all over it,
though it is not spelled out until the end. The effect is disturbing
nonetheless.
Consider Phlebas, The Player of Games, and Use
of Weapons all tell a conventional space-opera story of violence and
adventure—a story that is not less conventional, in the terms of the genre,
for being of baroque complexity and busyness. The final revelation is that this
story has been, from the protagonist’s point of view, beside the point, a
revelation of futility. The main character carries the action-packed story
(though he carries it to heights of destruction that tend to make his
proportions as an agent look a bit absurd), but determination turns out to be
elsewhere, displaced from the main character to the Culture, represented by some
observant character like Balvedra in Consider Phlebas, or the drone
Flere-Imsaho in The Player of Games. This other figure turns out to have
been using the main character’s energy, skill, and relentless violence to his
or its or her own quietly ruthless ends. Balveda and Flere-Imsaho appear simply
to accompany the main character on his adventures, the first as a prisoner, the
second as a servant, claiming to be merely "a library drone with diplomatic
training" (§2:141). The truth is shown to be otherwise. But then
historical determination (that is, why things in general are as they so vastly
and almost utopianly are) is to be found in the co-operations of humans and
machines (drones, Minds) that are so ramified that they cannot be narrativized.13
The story the novel very colorfully tells is like an assertion, like a strident
boast of storyness that the whole situation first frames, then turns into
irrelevance. When we come to Use of Weapons, however, the revelation that
the whole thing was a bizarre case history does produce vertigo. Individual
determination is elsewhere again, in the incidents and images of trauma, yet, as
we have seen, is everywhere manifest.
Against a Dark Background is somewhat
different from the rest of Banks’s sf, as it is not set in the Culture, and
has a female protagonist.14 But it repeats the collapse, or rather
implosion, of galactic adventure into individual case history that I have traced
in Use of Weapons. In spite of its broad scope, inventive technology, and
long combat-filled journeys, the story is motivated (in the narratological sense
of the term) by family betrayal, secret exploitation, deceit, and
self-deception. The adventure plot pulls us through the usual violent, urgent
series of crises and dangers, while we become aware that it is Sharrow’s
traumatic past that is determinative.
The trauma in her adult life is her earlier use of a
"Lazy Gun" to obliterate a whole city. (A Lazy Gun is a piece of
magical technology that also constitutes the object of the novel’s quest.)
This ruined her love life at the time; she was actually having sex when the gun
went off, which is unexceptional for the conventions of colorfulness that this
kind of story obeys. It gives rise to the occasional flashback memory, but not a
lot else, and it begins to seem that there is not much more to the case (§1:13,
§6:108, §11:206).15 But what is happening is best seen in relation
to Freud’s schema whereby adult trauma, no matter how painful, leads back to
originating childhood trauma.16 By "primal scene" is meant
here simply an incident, remembered as a scene, which incorporates sex and
violence, and figures for the character concerned, and also for the story, as
determinative and inexpungible. The pointer to the treasure which has to be
recovered to save Sharrow’s life is a set of dials from an ancient Harley
Davidson which her grandfather had had buried with him. His tomb, which has been
moved, has to be traced before this can be discovered, and the tomb itself is
connected with her childhood trauma. She was lying on it when she witnessed her
younger sister (hated childhood rival) making love with her cousin, Geis, who is
the chief villain of the story, as we had suspected when he appeared in the
first scene of the novel and offered assistance (§14:256-60; §1: 12-17). This
is the Banksian primal scene in that (in effect) it involves siblings rather
than parents.17 If we hypothesize a shifting of the Oedipal charge
from parents to siblings we can understand a great deal that happens in Banks’s
novels (the identity of main character and antagonist/cousin in Use of
Weapons, most obviously, but also the dealings with siblings and cousins in The
Wasp Factory, a novel with the classical oedipal pattern as well, and
the betrayals revealed at the end of Whit).
But there is another, earlier scene in the novel which has to
be considered. This is the vivid opening incident (Prologue 1-6) which involves
the assassination of Sharrow’s mother, effected when she, her mother, and a
bodyguard were suspended in a cable car on the way up a mountain. The dying
woman pitched her out of the cable car into the snow, as violent a separation
from the mother as could be visited on anyone. This scene is literally violent,
whereas in the canonical primal scene sex is read as violence by the child.
Further, it can be said, without too much exaggeration, that very many incidents
in novels of this kind are written as if they were primal scenes, in that they
have a bizarre, violent revelatory quality, and also a grotesque quality. And
(whether or not it could possibly be claimed that a novel was a succession of
"primal scenes," which would seem to reduce the concept to absurdity)
the flash which marks the detonation of the Lazy Gun (Sharrow’s adult sin, her
definitive transgression) repeats the flash of the grenade that killed her
mother.
If so, Against a Dark Background is almost a
parody of the clash between individual life-making and collective history which
often underlies the novels under discussion. The individual history is
exacerbated by being that of an action hero (selfish, hard to kill, good with
weapons, not given to hesitation or regret, accompanied by a band of jaunty
companions); the collective history is exacerbated by being galactic in scale
and involving a humanity (or a set of humanoid species) that has a long history,
a vast geographic or astral scope, and the command of hypertechnology that is
the equivalent of magic. The result is a disproportion between heroic activity
and the indifferent movement of history and collectivity, a rendition of the
sublime. Yet the sublime, always of its nature unsettling, is particularly
unstable in this psychic context: what business has Sharrow to be replaying her
personal trauma of maternal loss as the instant destruction of an entire city, a
bigger bang than at Hiroshima? The lived-out fantasy may have a certain
attraction for the reader, yet it has to be said that the structures and
possibilities are overloaded.
The relations between individual suffering and looming
apocalypse are different in the HYPERION novels, because the narrative is
structured differently. Individual fates are given individual poignancies by
Simmons’s inventiveness: the time ailment afflicting Sol Weintraub’s
daughter, and Father Hoyt’s parasitic stigmata are examples. This is ambitious
variation on sf’s treatment of time, in the first case, and in the second, a
rendition of its occasional rationalist critiques of Christian mysteries—confined,
however, to the Chaucerian travelers’ tales that figure in Hyperion. Further,
the parallels with Keats set up an artificial structure—one whose artifice the
bathos calls attention to (the novel’s violent, sexually-avid Moneta has a
bathetic relation to Keats’s Moneta, the novel’s passages of poetry have a
bathetic relation to the passages of Keats that are quoted in the novel).
Further consideration of the role of the Core in the HYPERION
novels suggests a disruption of the relations of surface and depth that is
analogous to what takes place in Banks’s sf. Humans thought that they were
using the Core as a cyberspace, providing instant information, translation ofany language, instant communication without need for interface. The Core
seemed the totally biddable, never malfunctioning servant. Not so; the
apparently Immediate is shown to be dense with its own mysteries, barriers,
purposes. It has evolved and proliferated its own life, society, politics, and
theology, vaster and more differentiated than humans could comprehend. Now it
plans to use humans, exploiting their brains (accessible without interface) for
computing power. The implications are, again, hard to escape: is not that the
unconscious has been subsumed—and consequently evacuated—by machines,
screens, media, as Baudrillard asserts; the movement has been in the other
direction. Technology has been absorbed by the unconscious, depth has emptied
surface of autonomy and even extension, since the universe that is not Core,
previously seen as vast and as a field of inexhaustible opportunity, is now to
function as the mere supplement of the Core’s power circuits.
Contemporary Galaxies. Banks’s and
Simmons’ galactic-empire fiction, with its sweeping, overarching narratives,
its inventiveness and ambitiousness, is a field of fascinating splits and
returns of the repressed. These novels suggest a kind of return of repressed
anxieties, the kind to which postmodern theory tends to give only cursory
attention. Multicultural variety and difference in this fiction is jeopardized
if not vitiated by its dependence on an alienating technology. Free, adventurous
hedonism turns sado-masochistic and vast and spectacularly violent scenes of
galactic conflict are revealed as allegorizing fated individual neuroses, or an
intuition of lack of agency. Fatal depths open beneath dazzling surfaces. No
doubt some of these features of excess and tension (tension between the
individual agent and the vast scale of events, for instance) are already
inscribed in the form of the galactic-empire novel. The suggestion here is that
Banks and Simmons have embraced but also darkened these features in the course
of expressing intuitions about contemporary anxieties. A post-modernizing of the
galactic-empire novel—most obvious in the way these novels emulate and exceed
other sf—ends up expressing the anxieties of the postmodern condition.
NOTES
1. See for instance Baudrillard (1991), 312-3, and
Csicsery-Ronay (1991), 388-9.
2. This essay discusses Hyperion and The Fall of
Hyperion, referring occasionally to Endymion, and Consider Phlebas,
The Player of Games, and Use of Weapons, which are galactic in scope,
as well as Feersum Endjinn and Against a Dark Background, which
are more confined. The parallels between Banks’s sf and his other novels
receive some comment.
3. See "cyberpukes." There are allusions to Gibson’s
inventions (Hyperion, §5:356-9; 363; "the quasi-perceptual
Gibsonian matrix," §5:399: 416).
4. So it is in Hyperion, for instance. The novel’s
structure is that of a series of travelers’ tales, roughly as in The
Canterbury Tales (which are quoted as the first tale begins, §1:23). The
travelers have all lived extraordinary lives which none of them has controlled—and
the more colorful and assertive the character, the truer this is, as can be seen
from the soldier and the poet, Colonel Kassad and Martin Silenus. Each of these
is a theatrical figure, living by a series of expressive, spectacular, repeated
gestures.
5. For the ideological background, see Jay (1993), 71-83; for
the mundane phenomena see, for instance, Gitlin (1990). The matter is ambiguous
in both novelists; they present violence and cataclysm as spectacle and also
reflect on the aestheticizing involved; see for instance, The Fall of
Hyperion, §9:90,§14:131, and The Player of Games, §3:348-53 .
6. Relevant here, but too complex to discuss in detail, is the
proliferation of waifs and street kids, usually female, in recent sf: sometimes
an agent, sometimes swept along in her adventures, but usually unaffected by the
kind of trauma that shapes the main characters in the novels under discussion.
Examples are Aenea in Endymion; Bascule and Asura in Feersum Endjinn, as
well as Nell in Neal Stephenson’s The Diamond Age, and Tabitha in Colin
Greenland’s Take Back Plenty.
7. Banks discusses his concept of the Culture in an interview:"not actually an empire, but a very large Galactic Cooperative."
(Garnett, 1989, 65).
8. Citation of figures (for instance, that the Orbital is a
"fourteen-million-kilometre loop" §5:99) does a disservice to the
writing. Anyone can throw in big numbers; Banks’s achievement is to evoke size
by incident, as with the slowly unfolding, at first unapprehended, collision of
the megaship with the iceberg (§5:1211-7).
9. The episode referred to is from Endymion (chs. 14,
16), which is different from the earlier novels in its handling of time
and narrative; but the Shrike does behave similarly in the HYPERION books.
10. The text alludes to the possibility; Hyperion,
§5:383.
11. In the sense employed by Jameson (1991).
12. For instance, Use of Weapons, §XII:49, §XI:74-5,
§V111:146, §VII:193 .
13. See p. 462 of the appendices to Consider Phlebas,
where "Statistics" and a "Historical Perspective" underline
the triviality of the story we have read in the vast scale of galactic history.
But as regards the actions of the Minds, see Banks’s latest Culture novel, Excession.
14. Given that Banks’s fiction is in obvious ways macho, his
presentation of female protagonists invites discussion. Unfortunately for this
essay, it is in his non-sf fiction that this presentation is most interesting,
especially in Canal Dreams (an exceptionally violent novel whose
protagonist is a female Japanese cellist), Whit, and, given the final
revelation about the narrator, The Wasp Factory. The fact that Sharrow in
Against a Dark Background is female isn’t particularly
interesting.
15. The battlefield copulation of Kassad and Moneta is also
hyperbolically linked to "the death of worlds!", "suns exploding
in great pulses of flame" (Hyperion, §2:178-9.)
16. That is, the kind of thing that many readers find
implausible in Freud’s Dora: the unpleasant happenings in Dora’s adolescent
life are discounted except as clues to the "real" childhood source of
her unhappiness.
17. This novel’s depiction of pain and torture also links
the sisters: Sharrow has been infected with a slow virus whereby others can
inflict pain on her at a distance and bend her to their will (for instance, §5:100-3).Breyguhn, for her part, is immured inside the vast castle of a sect whose
practices are based on punishment.
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