#70 = Volume 23, Part 3 = November 1996
Brian Stableford
The Third Generation of Genre Science Fiction
Science fiction first emerged as a popular genre in the 1930s,
when the example set by Hugo Gernsback’s Amazing Stories was followed
by other pulp-magazine publishers. During that decade, Astounding Stories—which
dated its first issue January 1930—was transformed by degrees into John W.
Campbell’s Astounding Science Fiction, which became the paradigm
example of what a science fiction magazine should aspire to be.
For thirty years after 1930 sf remained a magazine-based
genre. Once the economic disruption of the war had passed the pulps gave way to
digest magazines and much material from the magazines was reprinted in book
form, but the economic foundations of the genre were firmly situated in the
magazine medium. After 1960, however, the paperback marketplace expanded very
rapidly; the magazine market began a long, slow but inexorable fade while
paperback publishers became the principal financiers of the genre.
Ace and Ballantine, which had the most substantial paperback
sf lists, increased their production dramatically after 1960 and faced
increasingly stiff competition from such rivals as Bantam, Signet, and Pyramid.
During the 1960s it was the repackaged sf series which Ballantine began issuing
in 1965 and Terry Carr’s Ace Specials—launched in 1967—which claimed the
foreground of the marketplace. Although hardcover publishers began to invest
heavily in sf in the same decade, often functioning as primary purchasers,
paperback deals and paperback sales provided the money which funded that
investment.
The leading sf magazines continued publication, but it was
clear by the end of the 1960s that they no longer set the genre’s agenda.
Michael Moorcock’s New Worlds attempted to define a new avant-garde
role for the sf magazine but the experiment was an economic failure and it was
the paperback medium which played host to the "modernization" of
science fiction. For a while, many of the leading writers in the genre were able
to combine windfall profits from the paperback reprinting of old work with
increasing advances for new work; this enabled many of those for whom writing
had previously been a spare-time activity to become full-time professionals.
This second generation of genre sf lasted approximately the
same length of time as the first. The 1990s have seen a further shift, which has
displaced the economic and cultural foundations of the genre yet again. Insofar
as it is a popular genre, sf is now solidly based in the TV medium. There are
now as many commercial magazines devoted to TV science fiction as there are sf
magazines and their collective sales are an order of magnitude higher, while paperback books tied to TV series are at least as numerous as
original sf novels, and have far higher unit sales. Some tie-in books are, of
course, linked to cinema films rather than series initially made for TV but, by
virtue of cable TV movie channels and video cassette sales, TV has become the
principal medium through which movies are now consumed.
Although it is improbable that sf written for magazine or book
publication will fade away entirely, it has already been relegated to the
periphery of the marketplace and it is not inconceivable that it will eventually
retreat almost entirely to the realm of non-commercial small presses. The
magazines which support TV sf do not, of course, carry any fiction at all, and
although the books spun off from successful TV shows often present
"original" stories rather than novelized scripts, they inevitably
inherit many of the strictures which the TV medium places upon its own products.
The transition from magazine-based medium to paperback-based
medium was a relatively painless one for most writers already active in the
field. Indeed, it was seen by many as a welcome liberation. This liberation was
to some extent financial, enabling rapid growth of the population of
professional sf writers, but it also had an artistic dimension loudly trumpeted
by Harlan Ellison’s anthology of "taboo-breaking" sf, Dangerous
Visions (1967). The leading sf magazines had always labored under the burden
of a careful censorship of language, theme, and manner, but paperback books had
always been an "adult" rather than a "family" medium.
The transition from magazine-based medium to paperback-based
medium also affected the genre’s typical formats. The short stories and
novellas which had provided the bedrock of the genre between 1930 and 1960 were
replaced with novels, whose typical length increased steadily under the
influence of the marketing theory that fatter books sold better. This change of
formats also had corollaries in terms of content. It was, for instance, one of
the factors involved in the dramatic displacement of genre sf by genre fantasy,
because it is much easier for writers to construct in novelistic detail—and
for readers to orientate themselves within—a Secondary World which is a
straightforward Earth-clone than it is to create a world which is radically
differentiated from our own along any of the axes typical of sf.
Although the transition from paperback-based medium to
TV-based medium has been correlated with a further injection of money into the
genre, relatively little of this money has gone to established sf writers. This
might be reason enough in itself for the new shift to be seen by the genre’s
old guard in terms of loss rather than liberation, but the profound effect which
the transition has had on the genre’s typical formats and their contents is
also much more conducive to representation as a kind of imprisonment. The
rapidly expanding sector of the paperback market which is TV-dependent or
TV-imitative has retained the novel as its standard form, but the novels in
question are heavily formularized in a manner which restricts authorial
enterprise much more severely than the strictures applied to magazine sf, let
alone paperback sf.
Given that the future of genre sf is to be determined by
impositions inherited from TV, it will be necessary for the academic study of sf
to pay close attention to the nature of those impositions. The purpose of this
paper is to make some elementary observations as to their underlying rationale.
1. The Formats and Formulas of TV Science Fiction.
TV, as a real-time medium, is tied to the calendar and the clock. Weekly
schedules are organized around a stable structure of slots, according to a
pattern which changes according to the seasons. Stand-alone plays and TV movies
are usually broadcast in regular slots, and are most convenient when they can be
located within "anthology series" which fit individual scripts to a
standard template. Longer stories may be broken up into serials, but
fixed-length serials are difficult to paste into the scheduling pattern and if a
tightly-structured plot has to be split into more than two or three episodes the
gaps between them put a considerable strain on viewer attentiveness.
From the viewpoint of program-planners, the ideal TV format is
the infinite and very loosely-structured serial which can fill the same
time-slots all the year round. Such shows have the practical advantage of making
continuous use of fixed sets and standard locations and can build up
considerable viewer loyalty. The most popular shows using this format inherited
the name "soap opera" from their radio predecessors. In order that
there need be no particular pressure on viewers to see every episode, the
stories told therein tend to be simple, stereotyped, and highly repetitive,
involving a stable cast in an endless routine of personal dramas of the kinds
which used to be the principal topics of gossip in the days when people only had
real neighbors to talk about.
The second best TV formula, as far as planners are concerned,
is the potentially-infinite series, in which each episode presents a
self-contained story. Series can use fixed sets but they are usually more
various in their locations and thus tend to be shot in carefully-budgeted
batches, but successful ones can be brought back year after year for 13- or
26-part seasons. Sitcoms filling half-hour slots and drama series occupying
one-hour slots both fall into this category, their different lengths determined
by the fact that comedy is difficult to stretch and drama difficult to condense.
There is, of course, a considerable gray area where the characteristic
attributes of the infinite serial and infinite series formats overlap.
Science fiction poses special problems for both serial and
series formats because of the difficulties involved in constructing plausible
sets and finding plausible locations. TV sf is, by necessity, restricted to
those subspecies of sf which minimize these problems: shows set in the immediate
future or shows making very heavy use of fixed sets like bridgeheads and space
stations. Even so, TV sf usually requires a higher budget-commitment than any
other kind of popular fiction. The vast majority of TV sf shows never attracted
audiences big enough to carry them through to the end of their opening seasons;
those which did were usually faced with more restrictive budgets the second time
around. For this reason TV sf remained a "cult" genre for two decades
before achieving its spectacular breakthrough to more widespread
popularity in recent years.
The shows which have made that breakthrough inevitably fall
into a small number of narrow categories. Most, following the pioneering example
of Star Trek, are "bridgehead dramas" which make the maximum
use of their fixed sets. Such shows compensate for their lack of background
variety partly by building up the soap-operatic relationships of the principal
characters and partly by clever use of newly-sophisticated special effects
technologies. The recent success of The X-Files has regenerated
present-set sf, which superimposes similar special effects on relatively
ordinary locations.
The formats into which TV shows fall require the
standardization of certain kinds of plot-formulas. The most convenient
plot-formula for a drama series— of which all the others are
more-or-less-tortuous variants—is the "Law Enforcement" formula
which is seen in its purest form in cop shows and legal dramas. The lead
characters in such a series have a job which requires their continual
involvement in sorting out knotty situations according to an established moral
code and set of methods. Star Trek and its clones make heavy use of this
formula, as does The X-Files, although both shows owe their success, in
part, to an inbuilt versatility which allows them to make some use of the
variants listed below. Most such shows feature characters working together in
well-integrated teams.
The Law Enforcement formula shades into the "Special
Secret Agent" formula, in which the uniquely qualified lead characters work
for a secret organization and are continually sent forth on covert missions,
which usually pose problems of method if not of morality. Shows of this kind—Mission:
Impossible is the archetypal example—often stray into the borders of the
sf genre and many sf shows have been cast in this mould; The Six Million
Dollar Man was the most successful. Such shows frequently isolate a single
technologically-enhanced lead character, although he/she is usually supported by
less talented but steadfastly loyal "sidekicks."
The Special Secret Agent formula shades into the
"Wandering Vigilante" formula, in which the lead characters are
detached from any parent organization. They are constantly on the move for one
reason or another but their peregrinations are continually interrupted by the
necessity to fight for the cause of right on behalf of people they meet by
chance. TV sf shows which involve time-displacements, including Doctor Who
and Quantum Leap, usually adopt this formula. Such shows are even more
prone than Special Secret Agent shows to feature a distinctive lead character
distanced by nature and ability from his/her sidekicks.
The Wandering Vigilante formula shades into the "Running
Man" formula, in which the lead characters are usually questing after some
essentially elusive goal while being pursued and harassed by hostile forces. The
Fugitive created the TV archetype, imitated by such sf shows as The
Invaders. Although some shows of this kind—Planets of the Apes and Blake’s
Seven are examples—feature groups of runners, the standard format involves a
single individual and where groups are involved they are usually ill-assorted
and conflict-ridden.
These formulas fill a spectrum which extends along a scale of
alienation from formal organization to alienated individualism. Traditionally,
formal organizations have been correlated with well-defined and widely-accepted
moral norms but in recent years that representational norm has begun to break
down, with the consequence that the Law Enforcement formula has been infected
with a whole series of anxieties about the corruptibility of social institutions
and the legitimacy of authority. This has displaced the moral anchorage of such
dramas from the formal context in which the characters are located to the
virtuous relationships within the particular group—a convenient shift in terms
of series continuity because it enhances the soap-operatic qualities of the
interplay between characters. It also has the odd effect of allowing the
spectrum to double back on itself, so that shows like The X-Files can
easily combine key features of the Law Enforcement formula with key features of
the Running Man formula, their heroes alternating or combining the roles of
pursuers and pursued.
2. The Narrative Closure of TV Science Fiction.
It is intrinsic to the nature of series planning that the basic series situation
must stay the same, even if cast members have to be replaced. The conclusion of
every series-episode has to return the characters to the same situation they
were in at the beginning, ready for their redeployment in the next episode. In
consequence, the plot formulas of TV sf are committed to the use of
"normalizing" endings.
I have argued at some length in an article entitled "How
Should a Science Fiction Story End?"1 that
"normalizing" endings are inappropriate to science fiction because
they tacitly take it for granted that the status quo is a privileged
state whose restoration is the only appropriate outcome of any situation in
which the possibility of change becomes urgent. In murder mysteries and horror
stories, where any disruption of the given world is evil by definition,
normalizing endings are entirely appropriate. In sf, by contrast, the
implication that any innovation—including all technological inventions and all
scientific discoveries—must be construed as a menace to be overcome and
destroyed embodies a kind of paranoia which is positively bizarre.
The necessity of normalization in stories which deploy sf
motifs not only requires that all innovations be represented as implicitly
menacing but that they must eventually be obliterated without trace, because
even the knowledge that such things are possible would itself constitute a
considerable disruption of the world in which the stories are supposed to be
taking place. Even The X-Files, which has enjoyed considerable success by
accepting and institutionalizing an unprecedentedly generous paranoia,
encounters considerable difficulty in maintaining the series status quo,
and it is not surprising that the shows now being released in its train find
nothing less than the threat of the Apocalypse adequate to maintain the
requisite level of paranoia.
Alien worlds and hypothetical futures are, of course, capable
of much greater deformity than a "real world" setting, so it is
possible for wide-ranging series like Doctor Who and Star Trek to
employ endings which are parochially "eucatastrophic." Virtuous
changes must, however, be reserved to particular locations which are visited and
then left behind; the leading characters must continue to occupy exactly the
same narrative space, confined by their fixed sets—and this ground must
become, by definition, the moral high ground relative to which all other ground
covered by the series will be found wanting. The cops who move through an
Underworld of law-breakers, making their periodic arrests, in the basic TV
formula have perforce to be replaced by a company of saints, who move through a
Universe of moral imbeciles, working casual miracles as they go.
In the article cited above I suggested that conventional
eucatastrophic endings are just as inappropriate to sf as normalizing endings,
because they take the morality of the present as a standard in exactly the same
fashion. I pointed out that the development of seriously-inclined sf begun in
Campbell’s Astounding could be seen as a concerted attempt to discover new
eucatastrophes which would be capable of accommodating—and perhaps even
assisting— the cause of moral progress. The transition of sf from a
magazine-based to a paperback-based medium did not inhibit the extension of that
crusade and probably assisted it. The transition of the genre to a TV-based
medium has, however, already thrown that evolution into sharp reverse.
Even within the world of TV sf, the trend has moved in the
direction of moral absolutism. The slightly uneasy saintliness of the various
teams which play the Great Game in the Star Trek universe and the various
levels of Babylon-5 has been supplemented by the stripped-down morality
of Space: Above and Beyond, in which everything alien (or artificial) is
by definition evil, except for androids who can pass every test of true humanity
save for the "unfair" test of having been born on the wrong side of
the technological tracks. The X-Files, by mingling narrative apparatus
drawn from the lexicon of science fiction with apparatus drawn from the lexicon
of horror film and occult pseudoscience—without any discrimination whatsoever—equates
the alien with the literally Satanic, tacitly underlining the catch-phrase
"Trust No One" with the assumption that the authority of scientific
reasoning is as utterly corrupt as every other kind of authority. Even the most
sacred bond recognized by TV narrative—the bond between partners—has come
under increasing strain as The X-Files has developed. The tightly-knit
relationship gradually forged by the two heroes in the show’s first series had
soured by the third into the same corrosive mistrust that affects their
attitudes to everything else, leaving them nothing to fight with—or for—but
their private obsessions. This is not, of course, a result of conscious planning
on the part of the program makers; it is an inevitable corollary of the
requirement to spin out successful series indefinitely within the strait-jacket
of normalizing endings. The more successful TV sf is, the more prominent this
kind of subtext will become.
3. The Relationship Between Characters in TV Science Fiction.
Because TV is a real-time medium all its shows must flow at a fairly
steady pace measured out by rapid cutting—from one camera to another if not
from one scene to another. Whenever there is no movement or action on screen
there must be a stream of dialogue, which is why even the most exceptional lead
character is usually equipped with at least one sidekick. In order to maintain
an element of tension in this dialogue, the relationship between hero and
sidekick has to have some significant element of difference.
Females make useful sidekicks for male heroes—and vice versa—because
a certain amount of sexual banter can be built into their teasingly
unconsummated relationships. When male heroes have male sidekicks this tension
tends to be replaced by some other kind of marked difference, whose extremity
serves the double function of allowing them to supplement their own resources
and emphasizing that no homosexual element is involved in their constant
association. Thus, the Lone Ranger was backed up by Tonto and practically every
white cop in the US media nowadays has a black partner.
Sf facilitates the further extension of this formula, although
the inconvenience of knitting out a regular subsidiary character in unhuman
make-up deterred TV producers from adopting the motif within a regular series
until Star Trek showed what might be done with such pairings. Although
Kirk and Spock operated within the context of a larger and very tightly-knit
team they often functioned as a hero/sidekick team in which Spock’s supposed
emotionlessness provided a useful foil for Kirk’s alleged gallantry. Spock’s
hard-headedness could also be compared and contrasted with the sentimentality of
other members of the team, especially the conspicuously weak-kneed doctor. The
show’s clones took full advantage of this precedent by creating increasingly
complicated teams from which various carefully-contrasted pairs of individuals
could be extracted for deployment in individual scripts.
Because the relationships between the leading characters in TV
shows have this tension-maintaining function as well as the more straightforward
function of multiplying resources, they often seem curiously paradoxical.
Because the differences between the characters have to be so carefully
maintained, TV scripts often have to go to considerable lengths to emphasize
that, in spite of these difficulties, the characters are on the same side, and
that whatever comes between them they will always, in the end, be able to rely
upon one another. The extraordinarily ostentatious moralizing of so many TV
shows is partly a result of this kind of underlining.
Given that the relationships between leading characters in TV
shows have to maintain this curious amalgam of hostility and bonhommie, it is
not entirely surprising that some viewers of Star Trek took delight in
deliberately misconstruing the edgy on-screen relationship between Kirk and
Spock as evidence of a secret and guilt-troubled sado-masochistic relationship.2
The imposition of this kind of narrative necessity can, however, have an equally
perverse effect on the apparent mechanics of heterosexual relationships; The
Avengers was the first TV series to make the teasing qualities of such
relationships so explicit as to be exploitable as a narrative resource, but it
is The X-Files that provides the most obvious contemporary key example.
On the surface Scully is just another female sidekick, not
unlike those attached to Steed in The Avengers. Although Mulder doesn’t
actually outrank Scully he is the one with the experience and expertise to deal
with the kinds of mysteries thrown up by X-File investigations. When the series
began, Scully was a hapless skeptic blinded by her faith in the orthodox
world-view, desperately in need of the education Mulder could provide. However,
the extension of the series could not allow Scully to retain this resolute
skepticism in the face of so much evidence without making her look like a utter
fool. Hers remained, for a while, the cooler head in every crisis, and the
methodical analysis manifest in the awkward post-mortems which so many of the
plots required her to carry out allowed her to retain some authority, but the
fact that she was always wrong and Mulder always right inevitably destroyed any
semblance of intellectual balance in their relationship. She became, by
necessity, a deeply troubled individual.
The sexual element of the relationship between Mulder and
Scully also became stranger as the show went on. In the beginning, when they
were newly acquainted, there was nothing odd about the fact that they did not
immediately leap into bed. As they were routinely entrusted by the scripts with
saving one another’s lives, however, and forced to endure so much hardship
together, the non-consummation of their relationship began to require special
explanation. Given that no explicit reason could be offered in the actual texts,
viewers have no option but to draw inferences from the subtext. It is obviously
not maidenly reserve on Scully’s part which is responsible for the failure of
her relationship with Mulder to progress beyond tender frustration, so the
logical culprit is Mulder’s impotence—an impotence which would mirror and
support the broader impotence of his inability to find or make manifest the
"truth" which remains, frustratingly, "out there."
The relationships which exist between the lead characters of
any TV show are liable to become tortured and tortuous under the pressure of
series continuity, but in shows set in the real world the torment remains
stubbornly conventional. In fantasy shows like Beauty and the Beast it
can at least be defiantly unconventional, but in sf the same bizarre quality
which infects normalizing endings tends to be transmitted to the characters.
Even the rough-hewn Lost in Space became increasingly focused upon the
peculiar love-hate relationship which developed between young Will Robinson and
Zachary Smith as the latter’s continual life-threatening betrayals somehow
went unnoticed by the blithely air-headed heroes who were nominally in charge.
Wise program planners have little option but to try to make a virtue out of this
necessity, carefully injecting extra eccentricity into such sidekicks as Al in Quantum
Leap, but its effect on attempts at "realistic" characterization
are inevitably deadly.
4. The Heritability of the Characteristics of TV Science
Fiction. The novels spun off by various TV series are
obliged by their adherence to the formulas and politics of the medium to retain
all the key characteristics which their parent shows exhibit. They too must
favor normalizing endings and they must carefully retain the quasi-paradoxical
relationships which exist between the leading characters.
The Star Trek universe is, indeed, a universe; it
contains many worlds and has abundant narrative space for the creation of all
kinds of bizarre ecologies and bizarre societies. Books set in that universe are
not set-and-location limited in the same way that the TV shows are, nor are they
closely bound to specific special-effects technologies—but that does not mean
that they enjoy the same narrative freedom as books set in other
science-fictional universes. Important features of the Star Trek universe
are set in stone, and these include the kinds of plot-outcome which are
permitted there and the kinds of relationships which can exist between the
significant characters. The narrative straitjackets within which books spun off
from other shows must operate are even more restrictive.
Given these restraints, it is inevitable that texts spun off
from TV series should have a distinctive flavor, whose relative consistency
contrasts sharply with the more varied menu offered by sf written for magazine
and paperback formats. It is not surprising that the great enthusiasm which some
readers have for novels set in the Star Trek universe very rarely
develops into a more general affection for genre sf; if it extends any further
it is highly likely to extend only as far as other TV spinoff products.
It is, of course, pointless to complain about this evolution,
or even to regret it. A popular genre must, by definition, move with the pattern
of public demand and it cannot escape the imperatives imposed upon it by
whatever medium provides its economic anchorage. Given that genre sf’s quest
for new eucatastrophes never actually contrived to find any, it can hardly be
held to matter overmuch that the quest is now over. Given that genre sf’s
brief flirtation with xenophilia never made the least dent in the xenophobia of
the real world, it is presumably a matter of total irrelevance that the genre is
being carried by its TV manifestations into an increasingly paranoid phase.
Given that genre sf never had any convincing pretension to aesthetic excellence,
there is nothing at stake in the observation that its recent evolution
eliminates any such possibility. These observations are merely the things that
we must understand if we are to understand the dynamics of the genre, and as
such are primarily—perhaps only—of interest to academics.
On the other hand, it may be worth remembering that among the
many theories of technological determinism, which attempt to analyze the effects
which technologies have on other social institutions, there is one—first put
forward by Harold Innis3—which argues that social systems are
largely structured by the nature of the media in which communications are made,
not by the content of those communications. If there is any truth in this
thesis, the capacity of the TV medium to contain and shape images of the
future, images of scientific endeavor, and images of alternative social
possibility may have a greater influence on the wider structure of society than
is immediately obvious.
Fortunately, history informs us that every society obtains the
future it deserves rather than the future it expects, so we may have every
confidence that ours will too.
NOTES
1. Brian Stableford, "How Should a Science Fiction Story
End?" The New York Review of Science Fiction 78:1&8-15, February
1995.
2. The world première of "Spock in Manacles: The
Musical"—in which Geoff Ryman played the leading role—took place at
Beccon 3, a science-fiction convention held in Basildon, Essex, in 1985.
3. Harold Innis, Empire and Communication (Oxford
University Press, 1950) & The Bias of Communication (Toronto
University Press, 1951).
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